Which Word Means to Think of Something Again
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Word Significant. Types of Significant. Discussion Meaning and Motivation. Polysemy. Change of Meaning. Semantic Groupings of the Vocabulary. Replenishment of the Vocabulary
Lecture V
Give-and-take meaning is studied by the co-operative of lexicology called semasiology. Among the word�s various characteristics meaning is the most of import. In that location are different theories of the nature of pregnant. Unremarkably meaning is divers every bit the realization of a notion (or concept, in other terms) past ways of a definite language system. Information technology is usually said that a give-and-take denotes objects, qualities, actions, phenomena, or expresses the corresponding notions. The complex relationships between referent (object, etc., denoted by the word), notion (concept, thought) and word (symbol, audio-class) are traditionally represented past the post-obit triangle:
The dotted line suggests that there is no immediate relation between word and referent, it is established only through the concept.
Word meaning is made up of various components which are usually described as types of pregnant. The two main types of meaning are grammatical and lexical meanings.
Grammatical meaning unites words into parts of spoken language. Such words as goes, stops, works have different lexical meanings, but are united by a common grammatical pregnant: they are characterized by a common system of forms in which their grammatical categories are expressed.
Lexical meaning is private for every word: grammatically identical words take individual lexical meanings (cf.: went, kissed, looked), which are common for all forms of one and the aforementioned word. Go, went, going � all these forms denote the process of motion.
Lexical meaning includes 2 components: denotational and connotational.
Denotational component is present in every give-and-take and makes advice possible. It expresses the notional content of the word, shows what the give-and-take refers to.
Connotational component expresses additional meanings of the word which may be of different types: stylistic, evaluative and emotional, etc.
Evaluative connotation expresses positive or negative mental attitude to the object or phenomenon denoted by the word. Information technology may be rational and emotional. In the latter case nosotros speak of emotive-evaluative connotation. The words brain (�a clever human being�), for instance, is evaluated as positive, while the discussion brock (�a scoundrel�), to crook � have negative connotations. Cf. too: notorious � celebrated.
Emotional, or emotive connotation of the word is its capacity to evoke and express emotion (duckling, darling (diminutive emotive value)).
Stylistic connotation shows the stylistic status of a word: neutral, bookish, vernacular, slang, etc.
It should be noted that connotation is not an obligatory component of word meaning. Many words, for case, give, accept, walk, book, tabular array, etc., used in their direct meaning, denote only not connote anything.
The meaning of a word is studied with the help of Componential Analysis. It consists in decomposition of the word significant into semes � minimal components of significant, or elementary units of sense. One and the aforementioned seme may be found in the meaning of different related words. Thus, such words equally boy and human accept the mutual seme �the male sex�, and the words girl and woman � the seme �the female person sexual practice�. Different semes may accept different statuses in the system of semes in the word significant. Lexicologists usually distinguish archisemes wich express the generic pregnant and differential semes which alter or qualify the thought expressed by the archiseme. Thus, the discussion spinster may be dissever into the following semes: 1) human beingness (archiseme); 2) female, unmarried; elderly (differential semes). Componential analysis is one of the modernistic metods of semantic enquiry which provides a deeper insight into semantic aspects of the language.
All words can exist classified into motivated and non-motivated. In that location are cases when there exists a direct connection between the structural design of the word and its significant. This relationship between structure and significant is termed morphological motivation. All i-morpheme words are non-motivated. Words, containing derivational morphemes, are motivated. Thus, for instance, the word leader is morphologically motivated: its morhological structure suggests the idea of �leading� + �the doer of the action�. The degree of motivation may exist different: the word cranberry is partially motivated, because of the absense of the lexical meaning in the morpheme cran-.
There may be a direct connection between the phonetical structure of the discussion and its significant. This type of motivation is called phonetical motivation. It is observed in words formed by sound-imitation and occurs even in ane-morpheme words: splash, boom, etc. Some linguists think that oral communication sounds may suggest spatial and visual dimensions, size, shape: for case, that back open up vowels suggest big size, heavy weight, night colour, etc. Experiments showed that the not-existent word chung was associated past speakers of English with the words heavy and big, while the discussion ching � with the words light and small-scale. But not all linguists share the view.
A connexion between the direct significant of the give-and-take and its figurative meanings is chosen semantic motivation. It is based on the co-beingness of dissimilar meanings of the give-and-take. Knowing the significant of the word chain (�a serial of normally metallic links or rings�), one may judge the significant of such units as chain store, chain hotel, chain smoker, etc. In such cases we deal with a metaphorical extension of the cardinal meaning of the word.
There too exists the notion of folk etymology which is referred to the cases when the origin of the word, its motivation is misinterpreted. Thus, the Latin word asparagus (������) was turned into sparrow grass (������); in the Russian language the words ����������� in the spoken communication of uneducated people was transformed into �����������, ������ � into �������, etc.
The majority of English words take more than than one significant, so they are polysemantic.Words that are used most often take the greatest number of meanings: exercise, go, run across, etc. Various meanings of the word represent lexico-semantical variants of the discussion (LSVs) and establish its semantic structure. One of the meanings in the semantic structure of the word is primary, the others are secondary. For example, the word table has the primary meaning �a article of furniture� and a number of secondary meanings: �a supply of food�, �an act of assembling to consume�, �a group of people assembled at a table�, etc. Meanings can likewise be direct and figurative, concrete and abstract, central and peripheral, full general and special.
At that place are 2 chief types of the organization of the semantic structure of a polysemantic word: the radial and the concatenation one.
Radial polysemy is observed when all the secondary meanings of the discussion are connected with the primary pregnant and motivated by it, as the meanings of the world field, for example (����� → �������������, ��������, ������ ���������, �������������, ������ ������������).
An example of concatenation polysemy is the word bleak: ������������� �� ����� (bleak hillside) →���������, ������� (bleak current of air) → �������, ���������, �������� (bleak prospects).
Equally a rule both the types of polysemy are combined: drinking glass (�������→ ����������� ������ → �������� → ������� ��� ���� �������; ������� → ����������� ���� → �������; ������� → ��������; ������� → ������ → ����������).
Various meanings of a word are united by the existence of a mutual semantic component, even though they are different in their denotational and sometimes also connotational meanings.
In the course of historical development word meanings undergo various changes. Lexicology investigates causes of semantic changes, the nature of semantic change and the results of semantic change.
The causes of semantic change are traditionally divided into historical, or extralinguistic, and linguistic.
Extralinguistic causes are connected with changes in the life of the nation, its manufacture, culture, science which bring about changes in word meaning. The word manufacturing plant tin be taken equally an example: when the first factories apeared there was no other word to denote them, so the give-and-take mill developed a new meaning � ������������ ��������, �������������� �����, etc. Other examples are: villain (������������ ������� → ��������, Tory ����������� ���������→ ����� ������ ����, lord ���������� �����→ ���������, ��������, etc.�, etc.
Linguistic causes of semantic change are factors acting within the language system. Ane of these factors is the differentiation of synonyms which is connected with borrowing. For case, the OE give-and-take deer meant �any animal�; when fauna was borrowed from French, information technology ousted thw word deer in thus pregnant and deer bagan to denote a concrete species (o����). So the Latin brute ousted [au] creature in the meaning �whatever animal� and the word beast now has the pregnant �mammal� (������������� ��������, �����). Other linguistic causes are ellipsis [li] (in a phrase made upwards of ii words one of these is omitted and its significant is transferred to its partner: daily paper→daily (����������� ������)) and analogy (when one of the synonyms develops a new pregnant, other synonyms learn a new meaning too: eastward.thousand. when take hold of developed the pregnant �understand�, its synonyms grasp, become developed this meaning too).
The nature of semantic alter. All cases of change of meaning are based on some association. The process of modify of significant is termed transference. In that location are ii types of transference: 1) transference based on similarity and 2) transference based on contiguity (real connectedness between the ii objects). The outset type of transference is called linguistic metaphore: neck (of a human beingness) → neck (of a bottle). The second type is known every bit linguistic metonymy: hands (�limbs of a human being torso�) → hands (�a worker�).
Metaphores may be based on similarity between 2 physical objects (concrete to physical metaphores): teeth of a saw, leg of a table, a goose (of a silly woman). The latter example illustrates the phenomenon of zoosemy. Another type of metaphore is presented by concrete to abstract metaphores: a ray of hope, a shade of doubt .
Metaphores are built on different types of similarity: similarity of shape (tongue of a bell), role (leg of a tabular array), position (foot of a page), character of motion (snail (of a sluggish person)), dimensions (dumpling (of a short, chabby creature)), value (dirt cheap).
By means of metaphoric transference proper names may become common names: Appolo, Don Juan, Othello.
Metaphores of the blazon time is money, argument is war, etc. are chosen structural metaphores: one concept is structured in terms of the other.
Metonymy. There are diverse types of metonymy based on the following relations of two objects:
1) musical instrument → agent: pen (�writer�);
2) consequence → cause: grey hair (�onetime age�);
iii) symbol →the thing symbolized (crown �monarchy�)
4) material → the thing made from information technology (argent �money�); rubber (NB condom)
five) container → the thing contained (to drink a cup);
6) proper name of a identify → institution (Whitehall);
7) action → the object of action (my dearest);
8) quality →the person possessing the quality (He is a talent).
Synechdoche is a variety of metonymy which consists in using the name of a function to denote the whole or vice versa: Easily are wanted; OE mete �food� →MnE meat �kind of nutrient�. Many types of metonymy refer to synechdochy: material � the thing made from information technology, instrument � agent; symbol � the thing symbolized, and others.
The employ of proper names for mutual names is besides a type of metonymy: names of inventors or geographical names are oft used to announce the objects. Volt (the unit of electromotive force) received its proper noun from Alessandro Volta who made the discovery; sandwich goes back to earl of Sandwich, who ordered the butler to serve his guest carte du jour-players with sliced veal in between ii slices of staff of life so that they could consume them during the game without soiling the cards. Other examles are: a Ford, a Picasso, Wedgewood, marocco, china, champaigne, etc.
Semantic modify may outcome in the change of the range of significant. In the process of vocabulary development some words develop narrower or broader meanings than those they used to have. The get-go process is chosen narrowing (specialization) of meaning. Thus, OE fugol (�any bird�) came to announce a domestic bird (fowl [au]), the discussion daughter meant �a kid of either sexual practice�, simply gradually developed the meaning �a female kid�. The second process is termed widening (generalization) of meaning. The give-and-take ready (OE ræde) originally meant �prepared for a ride�, picture show meant �something painted�, the word uncle meant �mother�due south brother�, etc.
Semantic change besides results in the change of the connotational structure of the discussion. The thing denoted by a word may acquire certain positive or negative characteristics, which are reflected start in the denotational, then in the connotational component of discussion meaning.
The process when the object to which the word refers acquires negative characteristics, and the pregnant develops a negative evaluative connotation, is termed degradation (pejoration) of meaning. The OE word cnafa (MnE knave) meant �a boy�, then a �male child servant� and finally� �a swindler, a scoundrel�. The MnE discussion boor (����, �������, �������) originally meant �peasant�. So, the words acquired a negative connotation.
The development of a positive evaluative connotation is chosen summit (amelioration) of pregnant. Thus, in OE cwen (MnE queen) meant �adult female�, cniht (MnE knight) � �a young servant�, and so the meanings of the words have been �elevated�.
Semantically words may be grouped into homonyms, synonyms, antonyms.
Words identical in sound class and spelling just unlike in significant are traditionally called homonyms. MnE is rich in homonyms because of the great number of monosyllabic words, which are frequently used.
Homonyms are classified in accordance with several criteria.
1. According to the degree of identity (�� ������� ������������) three types of homonyms are distinguished: homonyms proper, homophones, homographs and homoforms.
Homonyms proper are identical in pronunciation and spelling, but different in significant: match (������) � match (����).
Homophones are words of the same audio form but of different spelling and meaning: sale � sail.
Homographs are words which are the aforementioned in spelling merely different in sound and significant: lead � lead (������).
To homoforms belong wirds different in meaning but identical in some of their forms: found (the Past Indefinite of find) � to found.
Homonyms that have adult from one mutual sourse, are identical in sound, possess a common semantic component and belong to defferent parts of speech correspond the and so-chosen patterned homonymy: eastward.g. silence � to silence.
ii. According to the blazon of distinguishing meaning (�� ���� ������������ ��������) homonyms are classified into:
a) lexical, belonging to the aforementioned part of speech but differing in lexical meaning: seal (������) � seal (������);
b) lexico-grammatical, which are different in their lexical and grammatical meaning: rose (��������) � rose (����);
c) grammatical, which are forms of one word dissimilar in their grammatical meaning: boys � boy�s � boys�.
iii. Professor Smirnitsky divides homonyms into two classes: total and partial homonyms.
Full homonyms are words that are identical in all their forms: this is complete homonymy: depository financial institution (����) � banking company (����� (����, �����)).
Partial homonyms are words that are identical in some of their forms (this type of homonymy is characteristic of words belonging to different lexico-grammatical classes): a seal (an brute) � to seal (to close tightly).
As for the sourses of homonymy, it should be said that homonymy may arise from through convergent sound development (�������� ������������) � when in the course of phonetic development two words accidentally coincide in sound: audio (OE gesund) � sound (sonus). Homonymy may also develop from polysemy through divergent sense development (split of polysemy � ������ ���������). E.g.: lath (�����) � board (�������, ����) � lath (��������) which are homonyms in MnE, were different meanings of one plysemantic give-and-take, having the primary meaning �table�. Homonymy may besides be acquired by borrowing words: rite (������) (Lat) � write, correct (Native). Conversion and shortening are also sources of homonymy: to drive � a bulldoze; rep (repertory) � rep (representative).
One of the nearly debatable problems in semasiology is discrimination of homonymy and polysemy, especially in cases of semantic divergence. In distinguishing between polysemy and homonymy three major factors are taken into account: the semantic proximity of the LSVs (cf. spring (flavour; a twisted piece of metal, a place where water comes up from the ground), their derivation chapters (cf. deep-voiced, voicing against the candidate, the Active vocalism of the verb) and the range of collocability.
Synonyms are traditionally divers every bit words of the same part of speech with identical or partially identical denotational meanings: to kill-slay-waste matter. The word which has a wide meaning, is stylistically neutral and simple semantically is the dominant synonym of the set. A polysemantic word may enter several synonymic sets.
Synonyms are classified on diverse grounds.
According to the degree of equivalence synonyms are classified into full (absolute) and fractional (relative). Absolute synonyms are rare and are represented by terms mainly: semasiology � semantics, carmine fever � scarlatina.
The majority of synonyms are semantic, or ideographic ones: at that place is a certain difference in their significant which lies in the notion or emotion expressed. Ideographic synonyms may be very shut in meaning (just not totally interchangeable) (to sparkle (with joy) ��������, ��������� � to glitter (with acrimony) ��������, ��������), or different in meaning considerably (journey � voyage � trip). They often differ in the degree of the quality expressed (want, desire, long for) or their evaluative connotations (loving, devoted � doting (������� �������; ����� ���������)).
Words with identical or partially identical denotational pregnant may differ in their stylistic colouring. Such words are called stylistic synonyms: maid � girl, talkative � loquacious. The difference in stylistic colouring is oft accompanied past a difference in emotional colouring and evaluation: visage � face � phiz � snout (�����, ���� ���������) � mug.
Words which coincide in pregnant only in a certain context are called contextual synonyms: buy � get (I�ll go to a store and get some staff of life).
According to their origin synonyms are divided into those belonging to the native element (fast-swift) and those arising through the adoption of words from dialects, variants of the language or foreign languages (girl � lass (Scottish), radio (AmE) � wireless, begin � commence (Fr.)). Synonyms as well appear due to the figurative usage of words (moon-gazer � dreamer), use of vulgarisms, slang or euphemisms (bottom, rear, buttocks � arse; girl � broad (Am. slang: Beautiful broads run subsequently me and I tin't resist them); sweat � perspiration, drunk � intoxicated).
Euphemisms go dorsum to ancient taboos: the word God, for instance is substituted by phonetically like goodness and gosh in interjections. Ideas or phenomena unmentionable in civilized club are normally expressed by euphemistic substitutes, but as soon as the substitute becomes generally known, its euphemistic force disappears and a new synonym is created: mad, graveyard, water-cupboard → insane, cemetery, lavatory → God'southward Acre, lady�s/men�due south room/restroom, etc.
Synonyms should non exist confused with paronyms, i.e. words that sound akin merely are different in pregnant and usage. Such words are ofttimes mistakenly interchanged: affect � consequence, crusade � course, context � contents, ingenious [i] (����������, ���������������, ������) � ingenuous [e] (�������������).
Antonyms are lexical units of reverse meaning. Antonyms form pairs; polysemantic words form several pairs of antonyms: dull � interesting; irksome (of a blade) � sharp, tiresome (of a pain) � acute, etc. Words with concrete meaning don�t have antonyms.
Structurally antonyms are divided into root and affixational ones: good � bad, happy � unhappy. At that place as well exist phraseological antonyms: big fish � small fry.
Semantically antonyms may be classified into 1) opposite (����������), two) contradictory (���������������) 3) conversive (������������) 4) antonyms of opposite direction (��������-�����������������).
Contrary antonyms admit some intermediary member between them; thus between cold and hot there are absurd and warm.
Contradictory antonyms take no intermediary member betwwen them and are mutually exclusuve: to apply �not� before one of them is to make it semantically equivalent to the other: not alive � dead.
Conversive antonyms are words denoting the same state of affairs viewed from different angles, from the bespeak of view of different participants: buy � sell, requite � receive.
Antonyms of opposite direction may be illustrated by such examples as: East-Westward, know-forget, left-correct, etc.
The vocabulary does not remain the same, but changes constantly. New notions appear and require new words to name them. On the other hand, some notions and things become outdated and the words denoting them drib out of the language, simply the increase, as a rule, more makes upward for the leak-out.
New words and expressions that are created for new things are called neologisms. the bulk of them appear due to the rapid development of science, industry and other spheres of human activeness. When the discussion comes into common use, it stops beingness a neologism.
Amongst neologisms the post-obit groups are distinguished:
1) neologisms proper, whose form and the content are both new: cyberpunk (a genre of science fiction that features rebellious figurer hackers and is set in a dystopian society integrated by computer networks).
2) transnominations (the class is new but the content is familiar): edutainment (education+entertainment) � ���������������� ��������.
3) semantic innovations (��������������) � the new meaning is rendered by a familiar grade: switched-on (well-informed, efficient).
According to the mode the word appears in the linguistic communication the following major types of neologisms are distinguished: phonological, morphological, semantic and borrowed neologisms.
Phonological neologisms represent combinations of sounds, frequently onomatopoeical ones: dude (��������� �����, ����� ���� �����), nylon, zap (����������, ������� � ����, ����� ����������� ������������� ������ (���� ��� �������); ������ ������������ ���������� (����� �� �������� �������)).
Morphological neologisms are formed according to the existing word-building patterns, such as affixation (racketeer, neatnik (�������), foodie (�������� ������)), composition (in-oversupply (�����), trouble-shooter (���������� �� ���������� ����������, ���������), job-hopper), shortening urb (← urban (������� ����������� �����), B-girl, TOEFL), conversion (to garage a automobile) and blending (vegelate (vegetable+chocolate), vegeburger).
In example of semantic neologisms erstwhile words develop new meanings, usually through metaphoric or metonymic transfer (metaphore: spam � originated from the repeated use of the discussion Spam � an American brand of canned meat � in a pop sketch from the British television show Monty Python's Flying Circus, first circulate in 1969; Doc Martens (DMs) � trademark, a brand of lace-up boots with thick lightweight resistant soles; the designer�s name was Doctor Martens).
Borrowed neologisms come from different languages. Words from Eastern languages are beginning to prevail: otaku (Jap.) � �������, ����������� �������� � ������, ������������ � ���������; karoshi � (in Japan) decease caused by overwork Etymology: from Japanese ka �excess� + ro �labour� + shi �death�; gado-gado [a:] � an Indonesian dish of cooked mixed vegetables and hard-boiled eggs served with a peanut sauce.
New wordscan exist created individually. Such words are termedoccasionalisms,orauthor�south neologisms. They are words, used once in some text or human action of speech and not registered in dictionaries. Occasionalisms are closely continued with the context, they are fresh, unique and unusual and are not reproduced, like other lexical units, but are always newly-formed. They may be formed according to any word-building pattern. Among occasionalisms in that location may be words of simple structure and multiple attributive structures (���������������� ������������ �������): breakfast-in-the-bedder, with an I�g-standing-no-nonsense-from-you expression.
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